Urban Context

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Historical Evolution

The citadel town of Erbil occupies an elliptical-shaped mound about 30 meters high above the natural ground level of the city below. Its long diameter is about 430 meters and its short diameter is about 340 meters. Its overall area is slightly more than 10 hectares (102,000 square meters). It is surrounded by a steep earthen mound in all directions which made it very difficult for any attacker to scale it. The town is largely occupied by traditional courtyard houses reached through a labyrinth of narrow alleyways. The houses that are built on the perimeter are contiguous and form a solid wall very similar to fortified citadels of medieval times.

The earliest scaled cadastral map of the citadel town goes back to 1920 and shows all urban features including plots and alleyways but not buildings.

However, some vertical and oblique photographs were taken of the citadel during the early decades of the 20th Century help identify many urban features. Another scaled map published by the British Army in 1944 shows the citadel and the rest of the lower city in outline only gives an accurate record of the extent of Erbil’s status then.

Later on, numerous accurate surveys and maps were made by municipal authorities. In 1971, a study of the citadel was prepared by Iraq Consult, which is an Iraqi firm of architects and planners, included an updated map. It showed, for the first time, the vehicular road running from the northern gate to the south one with a round-about in the middle. This road, which was opened in 1960, was an unfortunate municipal decision that caused a major disruption to the physical historic fabric and cut the town into two separated parts.

The road required the demolition of more than 60 traditional houses including the highly interesting Yaqub Agha houses, Mulla Rasoul mosque, and Erbil School, to name but a few. Fortunately, it just managed to avoid the historic hammam. The road provided unrestricted access for private cars to penetrate the wider alleyways causing serious environmental damage.

Recently, the high Commission for Erbil Citadel Revitalization (HCECR) together with “UNESCO” embarked on a comprehensive effort to document the existing situation and prepare an updated survey base-map for the whole town. This would include, among other things, identifying the physical and structural condition of all buildings, their architectural and historic value, age, building materials, original owners, and potential for restoration and future use.

Urban Form

The overall form of the citadel town is circular but more elliptical to be precise. It rises some 30 meters above the ground level of the lower city and is made up mostly of inward looking courtyard houses with few public buildings. Because of its imposing height, yellow-ochre color, and the solid perimeter wall, the town is perhaps one of the most dramatic visual experiences in the Middle East.

Originally, the town was reached only through a ramp on its southern slope that led to a huge and arched gateway. From this gate steps led to a small open square which, in turn, led to four main alleyways which branched in all directions like a tree. The town is not very large by comparison with other medieval towns in the region and elsewhere and one can easily walk its whole length and breadth in less than half an hour.

Urban Growth

A more logical deduction for the evolution of the urban growth of the town is, however, that earliest settlements started first on the southern part of the town near the south gate and around the perimeter in order to close any gap in the outside wall. The town then grew in all directions, slowly and gradually, until it was all filled at a certain time in history.
It is interesting to note that the citadel town has no fortified wall with towers like other citadels. Instead, the contiguous houses that occupied the external perimeter of the mound had massive walls that rose to a formidable height. Any windows or openings on these external walls were placed on upper floors only. In other words, there was no wall as such. The town was not inside the wall and the outer wall of perimeter houses was the wall.

Another probability is that there could have been a thick wall that surrounded the town originally as is the case with most medieval towns. In other words, there could have been a town inside the area surrounded by an external and independent wall, and that the perimeter houses that exist today were built on the lower section of the original wall-say sometime during the 18th Century or even slightly earlier. In fact some historical accounts refer to a wall with towers. Again, only through detailed archaeological excavations that this puzzle could be solved.

Alleyways

The pedestrian alleyways, which ranged in width from 1 to 2.5 meters, penetrated throughout the town like the twigs of a tree. One dead-end alley was only 60 centimeters wide. Even the smallest plot of land had to have some access to an alleyway. Major alleyways acted as distributors and continued to penetrate the residential quarters for more than 300 meters until they intersected another major alleyway. In contrast, smaller ones that branched off major ones were much shorter in length averaging between 50 and 100 meters in length. Dead-end alleys, or cul-de-sacs, were even shorter and averaged no more than 30-50 meters in length.

The narrow section of these alleyways was such that they were mostly shaded during sunny days thereby providing a comfortable and cool passage to pedestrians during hot summer time. The proportion of width to height was sometimes more than 1: 6. Houses of the traditional style never had large windows on their external alleyway walls. For reasons of privacy, only small ventilator openings were placed at high levels of these walls. There were also few windows on upper floors- unlike many traditional Arab and Islamic towns where many projecting \”Shanashils\” or \”Mashrabiyas\” distinguish upper floors and overlook alleyways. Thus, the appearance of these alleys was largely of solid brick walls punctuated occasionally by colorful doors.

The tree-like pattern of the pedestrian alleyway system was a logical functional solution to the circulation of human movement. All alleyways started naturally from the main gateway and fanned in all directions. The gateway was the only entry and the only exit for the whole population of the town. Of course it may be argued that other alternative circulation patterns could have been employed. For example, from the entry gateway a series of circular and concentric alleys could have been adopted which would have served access to all parts of the town too.

The labyrinthine nature of the winding alleys and irregular shapes of the plots were the inevitable result of incremental and haphazard growth due to the lack of any predetermined master plan. Each family built wherever it could if one assumes that, originally and very long time ago; the land was not owned by anybody in particular. Thus, the size of the plot was determined by the financial capability of the builder and not by any other consideration. Poor families chose smaller plots and richer families chose larger plots on which to build their houses. After the plot was built the property became \’owned\’ by the builder. After that the property became defined and ownership could be transferred from one owner to another without any change to the shape of the plot.

Perimeter Wall

The outer wall of the citadel town is perhaps its single most important feature and is one of the most impressive found anywhere. It is this perimeter wall which surrounds the town that gives it its fortified look and dominates the modern City of Erbil. The wall is a continuous ring of about a hundred houses of various vintages.

Perimeter houses, that are houses built on the outer edge of the top of the mound, are structurally the most vulnerable. Some of the houses have collapsed over the last 50 years either due to subsidence or underground water seeping from leaking piped and sewerage. Obviously, the collapse of an outer house creates a gap and endangers adjacent houses. A house collapsed as recently as 2006.

Houses built on the outer perimeter of the mound had to face the structural challenge of stabilizing the foundations of their outer wall. Therefore, retaining walls that tapered from some 1.7 to 1.2 meters were employed. Some larger houses of notable families had semi-circular buttresses or protruding brick features that had recessed arches and also used as terraces.

Erbil Citadel

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History

The Citadel Town of Erbil, or Qala’t Erbil, is an impressive elevated settlement that has been inhabited continuously for millennia. Although it’s exact origins cannot be traced with certainty, there are strong archaeological indications and finds, however, to indicate that it goes back to some 6000 years. The fortified town itself must have been present during to the Assyrian Period (1365-612 BC), or some 3000 years ago.

Some archaeologists believe that the site has been settled in since the Neolithic to Mid Bronze Age period (6000-1500 BC).

There are several conjectural possibilities as to how Erbil Citadel Town originated and developed its present form. They may be outlined as follows:

1. Gradual Accumulation:
That the mound represents a gradual accumulation of historical settlement layers rising slowly to reach its present height of some 30 meters. If one assumes that the age of the citadel is around 6000 years then this means that its height has been rising at the rate of 1 meter every 200 years. Although this rate seems to be a very slow one but is, nevertheless, reasonable when compared with archaeological evidence.

2. Assyrian Settlement:
That it may have been an Assyrian settlement with a ziggurat in the middle surrounded by temples. And that when it was destroyed and abandoned, it turned into a heap of ruin. Then, at a later stage, it compacted and presented itself as a very useful “Tell” and defensible ground for human habitation.

3. Man-Made Mound:
That the mound was artificially created by people who desired to live in this fertile land but needed a fortified site. Of course, this would have needed a massive human effort which is unprecedented in the history of human settlements in Mesopotamia.

4. Natural Mound:
That the mound was a natural one, perhaps a few meters high and risen gradually by human habitation. The flat land geography of the area, however, makes this proposition unlikely. Also, the shape and the slope of the Tell appear so ‘organized’ that it makes it unlikely to have been a typically undulating natural mound.

Location

The citadel town of Erbil lies in the middle of the Greater City of Erbil. It lies between longitudinal lines (45.05 E, 43.4 E) and latitudinal lines (37.20 N, 36.25 N). Although it is now completely engulfed by the huge expanse of the modern city it still lies at the heart of the busy central commercial district.

Erbil is the Capital City of the Kurdish Regional Government in Iraq and is about 350 kilometers northeast of Baghdad, 80 kilometers southeast of Mosul, and 96 kilometers northwest of Sulaimaniya.
The city may be reached by car from all major towns of Iraq and also from the neighboring countries of Iran, Turkey, Syria and Jordan by a modern system of highways. There is also an international airport which is only about 7 kilometers west of the citadel.

Once you are near the citadel you may walk up the steps of the Southern Gate or walk up the ramp of the Northern Gate. Alternatively, you can take a taxi to take you up the northern gate. Then, from either gate you may walk through the meandering alleyways of the town and visit its beautiful restored houses, the mosque, the public baths (hammam), and its numerous cultural attractions and museums. Moreover, certain vantage points at the peripheral wall of the town offer fantastic views of the city of Erbil below- ideal for the keen photographer.

Topografy

The citadel town of Erbil is elliptical in overall form and rises to about 28-32 meters above the surrounding city below. Because of this height it dominates the city’s skyline although, recently, this visual domination has become seriously threatened by new high-rise commercial development very close to it. If this high-rise development is continued to be allowed it will soon be completely suffocated and its dramatic visual dominance will be a thing of the past.

Its longer dimension (east-west axis) is about 430 meters long and its shorter one (north-south axis) is about 340 meters long. It encloses an area slightly more than 10 hectares. The slope, which surrounds the citadel all around, is earthen and steeply inclines between 35 to 60 degrees. The slope is steeper on the northwestern side than other sides.
The climate of the city is semi-arid continental in nature, with four clearly defined seasons. Summers are hot and dry with mean temperature highs of 39-43 degrees Celsius and without rainfall. Winters are mildly cold averaging some 7 degrees Celsius with an average of 56 mm. of rain. Spring is a most pleasant season in Kurdistan. Mean high temperatures range from 13-18 degrees Celsius in March to 27-32 degrees in May.

However, during the hot summer time, the citadel enjoys a markedly cooler micro-climate. This is because its narrow alleyways provide continuous shade and induce pleasant breezes. Moreover, the interiors of its traditional buildings offer a very pleasant and comfortable environment. Open courtyards are usually planted with trees and occasionally have water fountains. The thickness of brick walls and other passive cooling techniques such as semi-basements and window screens offer added advantages.

The High Commission for Erbil Citadel Revitalization

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Erbil Citadel is an impressive elevated settlement that has been inhabited continuously for millennia. Although it’s exact origins cannot be traced with certainty, there are strong archaeological indications and finds, however, to indicate that it goes back to some 6000 years. The fortified town itself must have been present during to the Assyrian Period (1365-612 BC), or some 3000 years ago.

The only way to discover the real age and origin of the citadel, however, is to make systematic and scientific archaeological excavations deep down into the middle and other selected points of the mound. Unfortunately, this has not been done yet. It is hoped that such excavations may start in the near future and, any major discovery of an archaeological find would provide a great boost to its enhancement and revitalization.

The present name of “Erbil” is derived from the Assyrian word “Arba-Illu” meaning “Four Gods”. Other derivative names include: Arbailu, Arabales, Arbira, and Urbi-Lum as was mentioned by the Sumerian King, Shulki of the Third Dynasty (2000 BC). In Kurdish it is now called Hawler.

The Assyrian city of Erbil was thus a sanctuary for four worshipped gods. These included Ishtar, the great goddess of love and war, and Assur, the national god of Assyria. The other two gods are not yet known. During the reigns of the Assyrian kings Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal (688-627 BC). King Sennacherib (705-681 BC) constructed a water canal all the way from Pistora Valley to Erbil, some 20 kilometers away. The head of this canal still survives with a cuneiform inscription stating: I, King Sennacherib, dug three rivers from the mountains of Khani Alti above Arba-Illu, the home of goddess Ishtar, and straightened their course.

In 331 BC, the Achaemenid king Darius lll was defeated by Alexander the Great near this town. The town seems to have continued to occupy the mound during Roman and Parthian times and became under Christian influence when the Roman Empire was converted to Christianity by Constantine in AD 325. Then, it became under Sassanian rule until they were deposed by the Muslim Arabs led by Uqba bin Farqad in AD 640.

The conquest of Erbil by Muslims was achieved without any serious resistance. The town continued to thrive and prosper but was now contested by the rising power of Mosul which became the metropolitan capital of the northern region of Mesopotamia since the 9th Century AD. Erbil was referred to by Arab geographers as a leading town in the district of Hulwan.

The town regained its political and economic importance in AD 1167 when it became the capital of the Kurdish Emir Zain al-Din Ali Kuchuk Begtegin. He was the former ruler of Sinjar, Harran, and Tikrit. However, the most famous of this dynasty was Muzaffar al-Din Kokbari, a brother-in-law of Saladin. During his long rule, which spanned from 1190-1232, Erbil thrived and experienced a remarkable growth that extended beyond the confines of the upper citadel city and occupied the southern foothills for the first time. A notable personality of this period, Abu al-Abbas al-Khidhir who was born in 1085, became the preacher for a madrassa built in the citadel by Abu Manzoor Sarvatkin in 1138.

This lower walled town, which became known as al-Muzaffariya, after the name of its ruler, covered a relatively large area which included houses, suqs, khans, hospitals, mosques, and madrassas (schools). This growth was inevitable because the upper town had reached its limit and that there was by now a general feeling of security. To this day, a beautiful brick minaret remains from the so-called al-Muzaffariya madrassa (or Choli). The madrassa as well as all the historic fabric of Muzaffariya town have totally disappeared and replaced by modern development over the years.

On the death of Kokbari in 1132, Erbil became under the rule of the Abbasid Caliph al-Mustansir in Baghdad through an appointed Wali or Governor. Then in 1235 lower Erbil was attacked and ransacked by the Mongols. However, they could not capture the fortified upper town until Baghdad itself and devastated by the Mongols in 1258. It seems that they achieved this difficult military task only when they secured the cooperation of Badr al-Din Lu’lu’, the then ruler of Mosul (1222-1259), and was rewarded by being appointed as the ruler of Erbil and the region.

The famous historian of Erbil, Abu al-Barakat Ibn al-Mustawfi (1169-1239), who was born in the citadel and became a Minister under Kokbari, was in the citadel when it was besieged by the Mongols. Another notable historian from this period was Shams al-Din bin khalkan who is well known for his 9- volume work entitled “Wafayat al-Aa’yan”. He was appointed a Minister but resigned his post after the death of Kokbari.

In 1261, there was an unsuccessful revolt by kokbari’s sons to recapture the town. The socio-political environment was remarkably tolerant when a Christian named Taj al-Din Mukhtas was appointed Governor of Erbil. He seems to have encouraged Christians, Jacobites in particular, to settle in the town and build a church for their community. A conjectural map of al-Muzaffariya during the 13th Century, based on contemporary accounts, shows that it was surrounded by a wall pierced by three gates. It enclosed an area of approximately 120 hectares which included Muzaffariya Madrassa west of the citadel.

Not much is recorded about the history of Erbil between the 13th Century and the mid 16th Century except that it became under the rule of the so-called Turcoman Black Sheep Dynasty (Kara Koyunlu :1411-1470) and the White Sheep Dynasty (Ak Koyunlu:1470-1508). In 1534, the Ottoman Sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent, occupied the town and had its ruler, Izz al-Din Sheer, put to death. He appointed Hussein Beg Dasni as ruler and maintained its administrative following to the Pashalik of Baghdad. After a period of intense competition between the Ottoman Turks and the Persian Safavids to control the whole region, Sultan Murad IV finally secured Iraq as an integral part of the Ottoman Empire in 1638.

The Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries witnessed severe rivalries between notable local families such as the Baban Emirs who ruled Erbil during this period. An engraving that accompanied a book entitled “Narrative of a Residence in Koordistan” published in 1820 and authored by Claudius Rich (1787-1821), shows the citadel town clearly dominating the surrounding landscape. It also shows that some urban growth around the southern side of the citadel has firmly taken hold and that Muzaffariya minaret stands alone to the west of the town. During most of the 19th Century, Erbil was under the administrative rule of Baghdad but was then separated and linked with the Sanjaq of Shahrazoor after the proclamation of the Ottoman law of Villayets in 1870.

It may be safely assumed that the urban form and structure of Erbil citadel did not change to any significant extent since the 18th Century. It was not until the arrival of the British in Erbil in 1918 and, later, the foundation of the State of Iraq in 1921 that some measure of urban modernization started to take place. The Municipality of Erbil was founded in 1885 and the first Mayor was Ahmad Agha Abdul Wahab. In 1913 the first modern vehicular road was

opened in the lower town. The first Mutasarrif (Governor) was Ahmad Afandi Othman. Electricity did not reach the town until 1932. The longest serving Mayor for the town was Muhsin Agha Mahmoud Agha who served from 1928 to 1958.

Architectural Heritage

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Architectural Heritage

The citadel town of Erbil represents a distinct urban entity and should be treated as such. It is not simply an agglomeration of a number of houses and other buildings located within a complex system of narrow alleyways. The citadel town is the unique heritage of human experience and genius of thousands of years. It tells the story of how hundreds of past generations interacted with their natural environment and how they developed their way of life based on their cultural norms and values.

Therefore, any attempt to conserve and develop this citadel should deal with it not as the sum of individual parts but as a total environment. There are so many lessons, both historical and architectural, that can be learned from this town. Its remaining buildings, houses, and urban spaces and features, represent an extremely valuable and irreplaceable cultural resource that should not be allowed to disappear forever.

Recently, the citadel town has been included as one of the 100 most endangered cultural sites in the world by the World Monument Fund (WMF) in New York. Efforts are also being made to have it included as one of UNESCO’s list of World Heritage Sites.

The existing fabric today consists of about 250 buildings most of which are courtyard houses from early 19th century.. In fact, there is no accurate survey or official record which ascertain the true age of all existing buildings.

The oldest surviving building is the Qala’ Hammam which is thought to have been built in 1775. Some existing houses have dates inscribed on them in Hijra Calendar as AH1311 which is equal to AD1893. Another house had a dated inscription of AH 1321 which is equal to AD1903. It is almost certain that there are older houses particularly on the south eastern side of the citadel. This means that there has been a continuous process of rebuilding over hundreds of years.

Houses were built over and over again and again on top of existing foundations, semi basements or even some walls. In other words, the citadel’s fabric has been regenerating itself continuously. It is a great pity indeed that older buildings that belonged to the 16th and 15th Centuries or beyond could not survive this process.

Today, there are some 90 or so houses which have original and authentic architectural qualities that merit their restoration to their original state. Also, the perimeter wall must be maintained and restored because it represents an entity by itself. The mosque and hammam are still there but also need some restoration and enhancement.

However, most of the remaining houses have been left to either decay to a very serious extent or have been changed or added to so much that it makes it difficult to justify restoring them as they are. Should such houses be demolished and rebuilt as something else, or should they be restored as they were? Therefore, any future conservation and revitalization plan for the citadel must face this very challenging question that will prove to be the essential key to its success or otherwise.

Houses

Before the advent of modernization since the 1930s of the last century, the citadel consisted largely of traditional courtyard houses- just over 500 in all. Of these there were some 30 or so large palace-like houses that were mostly located on the peripheral wall but some were inside the town proper. Medium-sized houses numbered about 120, while smaller houses of poorer families numbered about 350.

All these houses, large and small, had open courtyards and were constructed in brickwork. They used timber joists for roofing and brick vaults for roofing semi-basements. The inside walls were plastered in “juss” and had numerous niches and shelves, often decorated with colorful patterns and features. Ceilings were often paneled with wooden planks and painted in bright colors and floral decorations. In simpler houses and rooms ceilings were left to expose tree trunks and matting.

Most houses had two floors and a flat roof. The entrance from the alleyway led to an open courtyard from which one either went down to a semi-basement level or walked up to an upper floor. Often, semi-basements were lower than courtyard level by about 1 to 1.5 meters, while upper floors were usually higher than courtyard level by about the same amount. The difference in levels allowed the insertion of windows for the lower semi-basement level.

More often than not, houses had a raised terrace with arches (Arcade) or with columns (Colonnade, or Tarma) overlooking the courtyard and act as an intermediate space to upper floor rooms. The terrace is reached directly through steps from the courtyard. Behind the arcade or colonnade, which is placed on one or two sides of the courtyard, the main rooms of the house are located. These rooms, which are directly accessed from the terrace, are usually planned with their longitudinal axis perpendicular to the terrace. They also received their natural daylight and ventilation through several windows facing the terrace. In case of perimeter houses, they also had windows overlooking the town below.

Arcaded terraces usually have three or more round or pointed arches resting on round or square columns. Often, these arcades were built in stone and sometimes covered with grey color marble from Mosul. Colonnaded terraces, on the other hand, had wooden columns often crowned with elaborate “Muqarnased” capitals not unlike their counterparts in Baghdad and elsewhere in Iraq.

Courtyards were usually planned to be geometric in shape- either square or rectangle. This contrasts sharply with the shape of the land plot which was nearly always highly irregular with no right angles. This suggests that the designer, often the master mason “Usta” himself, arranged the spatial organization of the plan after first deciding the shape, size, and place of the courtyard. However, in very small plots it was not possible to achieve a regular shape for the courtyard.

For example, if the plot had a narrow frontage and was long in depth then he would logically opt for a long rectangular courtyard along its axis. If, on the other hand, the plot was square in overall shape he would choose to start with a square courtyard. Because most plots were irregular symmetrical plans were not possible and perhaps undesirable.

This also meant that the entrance to the house had to be on one side of the frontage and rarely in the middle. Ideally, the entrance was usually a “broken” arrangement to provide added privacy. This meant that when the entrance door was opened no outsider or passerby could see the courtyard and the people inside. In addition, a small water closet (toilet) was often provided near the entrance for guests.

Citadel & the City

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History

The Citadel town of Erbil lies in the middle of the greater city of Erbil, the Capital City of the Kurdish Regional Government in Iraq. and is about 350 kilometers northeast of Baghdad, 80 kilometers southeast of Mosul, and 96 kilometers northwest of Sulaimaniya

Urban Form

The overall form of the citadel town is circular but more elliptical to be precise. It rises some 30 meters above the ground level of the lower city . Its long diameter is about 430 meters and its short diameter is about 340 meters. Its overall area is slightly more than 10 hectares (102,000 square meters). It is surrounded by a steep earthen mound in all directions which made it very difficult for any attacker to scale it. The town is largely occupied by traditional courtyard houses and with few public buildings reached through a labyrinth of narrow alleyways. The houses that are built on the perimeter are contiguous and form a solid wall very similar to fortified citadels of medieval times.. Because of its imposing height, yellow-ochre color, and the solid perimeter wall, the town is perhaps one of the most dramatic visual experiences in the Middle East. read more..

Architectural Heritage

The citadel town of Erbil represents a distinct urban entity and should be treated as such. It is not simply an agglomeration of a number of houses and other buildings located within a complex system of narrow alleyways. The citadel town is the unique heritage of human experience and genius of thousands of years. It tells the story of how hundreds of past generations interacted with their natural environment and how they developed their way of life based on their cultural norms and values. Therefore, any attempt to conserve and develop this citadel should deal with it not as the sum of individual parts but as a total environment. There are so many lessons, both historical and architectural, that can be learned from this town. Its remaining buildings, houses, and urban spaces and features, represent an extremely valuable and irreplaceable cultural resource that should not be allowed to disappear forever. Recently, the citadel town has been included as one of the 100 most endangered cultural sites in the world by the World Monument Fund (WMF) in New York. Efforts are also being made to have it included as one of UNESCO’s list of World Heritage Sites. Before the advent of modernization since the 1930s of the last century, the citadel consisted largely of traditional courtyard houses- just over 500 in all. Of these there were some 30 or so large palace-like houses that were mostly located on the peripheral wall but some were inside the town proper. The outer wall of the citadel town is perhaps its single most important feature and is one of the most impressive found anywhere. It is this perimeter wall which surrounds the town that gives it its fortified look and dominates the modern City of Erbil. The wall is a continuous ring of about a hundred houses of various vintages. read more..